Security Cooperation at the Tactical Level:

Winter 2025 Security Cooperation at the Tactical Level: by MAJ Miguel Moyeno and MSG Jaime Cantu S ince 2021, the U.S. Army and the Brazilian Army have con ducted combined military ex ercises as part of Exercise Southern Vanguard (SV), known in Bra zil as the Combined Operations and Ro tational Exercise (CORE). According to the U.S. Army Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL), the “U.S. Army South’s Southern Vanguard (SV) series of exer cises are built to enhance relation ships, promote mutual military readi ness, improve interoperability, and es tablish the foundation for lasting inte grated deterrence with select partner nations (PNs) in the United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) area of responsibility (AoR).”1 In all iterations of SV/CORE to date, Brazilian Army infantry units have been paired with a unit from a U.S. Army infantry brigade combat team (IBCT) company. In anticipation of the possibility of the introduction of U.S. Army units from a Stryker brigade combat team (SBCT) or an armored brigade combat team (ABCT) being paired with a Brazilian Army armored unit, this article seeks to first provide an overview of the U.S. Army’s security cooperation activities in the Western Hemisphere and more importantly, describe the Brazilian Ar my’s Armored and Cavalry formations to maximize SV/CORE’s ability “to en hance interoperability at the tactical level with operational and strategic sig nificance ensuring integrated deter rence” at a U.S. combat training center

(CTC).2

Although the Indo-Pacific and Europe an theater remains a focus of the Unit ed States national security, the U.S. Army remains focused on improving security and stability throughout the Western Hemisphere and seeks to work with partners to “improve secu rity, stability, and interoperability with partnered states and their military forces while deterring non-hemispher ic states from intervening in the re gion”. Armor leaders will indirectly and directly spend portions of their ca reer enabling security cooperation through training exercises that pro mote interoperability and strengthen partnerships. These activities at the tactical level with countries like Brazil make the United States safer, stronger, and more prosperous. What is Security Cooperation? The Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) defines security coop eration (SC) as “comprising of all activ ities undertaken by the Department of War (DoW) to encourage and enable international partners to work with the United States to achieve strategic ob jectives. It includes all DoW interac tions with foreign defense and security establishments, including all DoW-ad ministered security assistance (SA) pro grams, that build defense and security relationships; promote specific U.S. se curity interests, including all interna tional armaments cooperation activi ties and SA activities; develop allied and friendly military capabilities for self-defense and multinational opera tions; and provide U.S. forces with peacetime and contingency access to host nations. It is DoW policy that SC is an important tool of national security and foreign policy and is an integral Figure 1. U.S. Army MAJ Joseph Fontana, an Army Advisor with 3rd Squadron, 1st SFAB discusses mission planning with Brazilian Army partners during a combined arms rehearsal at Joint Readiness Training Center, Fort Polk, LA, Aug. 21, 2024. (U.S. Army photo by SSG Brahim Douglas) Combat Training Center Interoperability with the Brazilian Army

Winter 2025 element of the DoW mission”. Exam ples of Armor leaders supporting secu rity cooperation activities include par ticipating in the U.S. Army Military Per sonnel Exchange Program (MPEP), overseas rotational deployments, U.S.- based CTC rotations with partners and allies, and collaborating with partners and allies in professional military edu cation schools (e.g. Armor Basic Officer Leader Course (ABOLC), Maneuver Captain Career Course (MCCC), and the Command and General Staff Course (CGSC).

United States Presence in the Western Hemisphere According to the Association of the United States Army (AUSA), “the U.S. Army continues to share responsibility for fostering peace and stability in the Western Hemisphere. U.S. Army South (USARSOUTH)—the Army Service Com ponent Command (ASCC) of USSOUTH COM — conducts and supports multi national operations and security coop eration in this AoR to counter transna tional threats and to strengthen re gional security in defense of the home land.”3 USARSOUTH is headquartered at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas and supports U.S. national secu rity objectives in the region through proactive engagement and enduring partnerships with 24 counterparts in the AoR. Joint Task Force-Guantanamo Bay (JTF-GTMO) and Joint Task Force-Bravo (JTF-B) are permanently as signed in the AoR and facilitate contin gency response, collective response, security capability and readiness in Army forces and partner militaries.4 Overall, USARSOUTH supports U.S. joint, combined, and interagency op erations that increase regional securi ty; supports interagency operations in coordination with U.S. military and U.S. embassy country teams; supports re gional humanitarian and civic assis tance, disaster relief, and contingency missions; and plans, coordinates and conducts regional search and rescue operations.5 The U.S. Army and the Brazilian Army have a partnership that was forged in combat during World War II. During World War II, the Brazilian Expedition ary Force, known in Brazil as the Força Expedicionária Brasileira (FEB), nick named Cobras Fumantes or “the Smok ing Snakes”, fought alongside U.S. forc es in the Mediterranean Theatre. U.S. Army and Brazilian Army: Southern Vanguard and Combined Operations Readiness Exercise In recent years, the U.S. Army and Bra zilian Army have increased interoper ability through Exercise Southern Van guard. Exercise Southern Vanguard is a USSOUTHCOM-sponsored, USAR SOUTH-conducted exercise at the op erational and tactical levels designed to increase interoperability between U.S. and Western Hemisphere forces with the ultimate goal of establishing a multinational exercise, that will im prove readiness, security, and interop erability.6 The first iteration with Brazil took place in Brazil in December 2021, with participating units from the U.S. Army’s 101st Airborne Division (Air As sault) and the Brazilian Army’s 5th Bat talion, 12th Infantry Brigade.7 The lat est iteration took place in Brazil in No vember 2023. U.S. participants included USARSOUTH, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), 7th Special Forc es Group, 1st Security Forces Assis tance Brigade (SFAB), and the New York Army National Guard who trained alongside more than 1,000 Brazilian army personnel assigned to the 52nd Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade.8 CORE is an extension of SV and is an exercise where a Brazilian unit participates in a CTC rotation at the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) in Fort Polk, Lou isiana. Brazilian Army Cavalry: South America’s Largest Armored and Cavalry Formations In Brazil, the branch that accounts for the Brazilian Army’s armored and cav alry formations is the Cavalry Branch. In contrast, the branch that accounts for the U.S. Army’s armored, mecha nized, and cavalry formations is the U.S. Armor Branch. The modern histo ry of the Brazilian Army’s Cavalry and Armored formations can be traced to the 1980s when the Brazilian Army re ceived a large quantity of domestic and international mechanized vehicles to equip brigade and below armored and Figure 2. U.S. Army North welcomed a delegation from the Brazilian Army last week to commemorate the 80th anniversary of Operation Encore, a pivotal World War II campaign that cemented the enduring partnership between the United States and Brazil. (U.S. Army photo by SGT Andrea Kent)

Winter 2025 assault operations. The light cavalry is an airborne force carried by Army Avi ation helicopters and can quickly oper ate in any part of the national territo ry.13 The jungle cavalry is a force capa ble of operating in the Amazon envi ronment, increasing the firepower and security of its surrounding echelon. mechanized units. In 1997, the Brazil ian Army received the M60A3 tank thermal sight (TTS) tank. In 1998, the Brazilian Army received the Leopard 1A1.9 The acquisition of these vehicles provided an increase of combat power to brigade and below units across the Brazilian Army. In 2009, the Brazilian Army began replacing the Leopard 1A1 with the Leopard1A5.10 Since 2014, the Brazilian Army has incorporated the Viatura Blindada Transporte de Pessoal (VBTP) Guarani into its struc ture along with the incorporation of the Lince Light Multitasking Armored Vehicle and the Centauro II.11 The ac quisition of the Centauro II 8x8 Mobile Gun System represents a significant enhancement of Brazil’s cavalry and re connaissance capabilities, providing the Brazilian Army with a modern, highly mobile fire support platform. The Centauro II, known for its firepow er, speed, and versatility, aligns with Brazil’s strategy to modernize its mech anized forces while maintaining opera tional flexibility in diverse terrains. The strategic acquisition of the Centuaro II for the Brazilian Army marks a signifi cant modernization effort for the Bra zilian Army, enhancing its ability to conduct highly mobile armored war fare while maintaining a strong pres ence in diverse operational environ ments. The Centauro II’s combination of firepower and mobility makes it par ticularly suited for Brazil’s vast and di verse terrain, including its open plains in the south, dense jungle regions, and urban environments. The Brazilian Army’s Cavalry Branch is the proponent of all cavalry, armor, and mechanized forces. Due to the large spectrum of operations and mis sions assigned to the Brazilian Army, the Cavalry Branch has organized its units based on vehicles and function ality to accomplish their missions. The mechanized cavalry constitutes a high ly mobile and powerful force capable of conducting reconnaissance and se curity actions on wide fronts and in great depths. It is a light armored force capable of participating in both offen sive and defensive operations.12 The armored cavalry constitutes a highly mobile and powerful force, equipped and trained to conduct combat on board. Its combat power rests on the combined use of tanks and armored riflemen. The possibility of quickly con centrating or dispersing on the battle field makes armored cavalry a key ele ment in combat decisions. The para chute cavalry constitutes a highly mo bile and powerful force, capable of car rying out reconnaissance and security missions and participating in airborne Figure 4. Southern Vanguard 2024 was a combined training exercise in Belem, Macapa, and Oiapoque, Brazil, Nov. 6 - 16, 2023. About 300 U.S. Army and Na tional Guard Soldiers trained alongside more than 1,000 Brazilian army per sonnel. (U.S. Army National Guard photo by SPC Joseph Liggio) Figure 3. Soldiers from the Brazilian Army meet MG Phillip Ryan, USARSOUTH CDR, at JRTC, Fort Polk, LA. (U.S. Army photo)

Winter 2025 The guard cavalry is used, primarily, in Internal Defense operations and mili tary ceremonies.14 Combat Training Center Interoperability Considerations This portion of the article intends to discuss how a Brazilian armor compa ny would fight at the National Training Center (NTC) alongside a U.S. Army ABCT or SBCT. This analysis is modeled by Exercise Talisman Sabre 23 where a U.S. Armor tank company went to Aus tralia to train at the Townsville Field Training Area.15 We will focus on a company-sized element. We analyzed authentic materials from the Brazilian Army that were in Portuguese to pro vide accurate information. Based on the prospect of a Brazilian Cavalry unit being paired up with a U.S. Army ABCT or SBCT, we will explore the capabili ties of an armored and mechanized unit. Training at NTC with the Brazilian Army A potential training exchange between the U.S. Army and the Brazilian Army at NTC would offer valuable insights into mechanized warfare tactics, in teroperability, and logistical challeng es. If a Brazilian armored platoon were to participate in an NTC rotation, its structure, operational methods, and logistical considerations would need to be examined in depth. Likewise, if a U.S. platoon were to train in Brazil, un derstanding the Brazilian training envi ronment, infrastructure, and opera tional challenges would be essential. A Brazilian Leopard 1A5BR platoon is structured similarly to a U.S. Army tank platoon. The composition of a typical Brazilian armored platoon includes: four Leopard 1A5BR main battle tanks, one First Lieutenant platoon leader (PL) responsible for tactical command and maneuver decisions; one “Segun do Sargento” Platoon Sergeant (PSG) who is equivalent to a U.S. Army Staff Sergeant and responsible for leader ship, discipline, and logistics within the platoon; two “Terceiro Sargentos” Sec tion Leaders who are equivalent to U.S. Army Sergeants, each commanding a two-tank section; and a mix of twelve “Cabos” and “Soldados” Crew Members. “Cabos” function similarly to a U.S. Army Corporal, overseeing ju nior soldiers and assisting in vehicle operations. This structure enables tac tical flexibility, ensuring that Brazilian armored platoons can conduct opera tions effectively while integrating in fantry support when necessary. Regarding tactical deposition and com bat employment, Brazilian armored units follow offensive-oriented doc trines, with a standard disposition that prioritizes attack formations and area security operations. Their employment of Leopard 1A5BR tanks often includes forward attack positions, maintaining offensive pressure, integration of dis mounted elements for securing key terrain and supporting armored ad vances, and the use of defensive posi tions when required, particularly in terrain where mobility is constrained. The Leopard 1A5BR is a versatile plat form, optimized for maneuver warfare, and although it lacks the advanced protection and firepower of modern main battle tanks, it remains a highly capable vehicle for fast-moving en gagements. When it comes to fuel and sustainment capabilities, one notable logistical advantage of the Leopard 1A5BR is its ability to operate on mul tiple fuel types. While it primarily uses traditional diesel fuel, it can also run on kerosene-based jet fuel if diesel is unavailable. This flexibility is particu larly beneficial in austere environ ments where fuel supply chains may be inconsistent. Training at the Brazilian Army’s Regional Training Center If the U.S. Army sends a tank platoon to Brazil, the training would take place at “O Centro de Adestramento Sul” (CA-Sul), Brazil’s equivalent to NTC. Lo cated in the south of Brazil, CA-Sul serves as the primary training and eval uation center for all Brazilian armored formations. Unlike the U.S., where training centers are distributed across different regions and can certify differ ent brigade combat team (BCT) forma tions, Brazil consolidates armored unit evaluations at CA-Sul. Brazil also has other regional training and evaluation areas in the north and east, but these are primarily used for infantry, air as sault, and light mechanized units. Any armored unit, regardless of where it is stationed, must undergo final evalua tions at CA-Sul before being consid ered fully operationally certified. An exercise in Brazil between the U.S. Army and the Brazilian Army using a U.S. tank platoon would be the first time and would demonstrate the value of interoperability. An exercise of this type would provide valuable lessons in combined arms maneuver warfare; however, several challenges must be addressed. One challenge would be infrastructure. The infrastructure required to support heavy mechanized units varies signifi cantly between the two nations. Unlike the United States where roads, bridg es, and rail systems can accommodate Abrams tanks and Bradley Fighting Ve hicles, Brazil’s road networks and transport capabilities are optimized for lighter mechanized units. Transporting U.S. armored assets to training loca tions would require extensive logistical planning. Another challenge is logisti cal sustainment. Sustaining a U.S. tank platoon in Brazil presents a unique set of logistical hurdles such as fuel and ammunition resupply because while Brazil’s Leopards can operate on mul tiple fuel types, U.S. tanks and Bradleys would require JP-8 or diesel in large quantities. Regarding vehicle mainte nance, spare parts, and specialized re pair facilities may not be readily avail able, requiring the deployment of ad ditional maintenance teams and equip ment. As for resupply chains, U.S. sup ply chains are accustomed to operating in environments with well-established logistics hubs, whereas Brazil’s ar mored units rely on regional supply de pots that may not align with U.S. Army sustainment models. Additionally, a challenge that exists is overcoming lan guage barriers to create interoperabil ity. Although many Brazilian military personnel speak English, Portuguese is the primary language of instruction and communication. This could create challenges in coordinating operations, issuing orders, and conducting after-action reviews. While interpreters could mitigate some of these difficul ties, the efficiency of training exercises could be affected by communication barriers. A U.S. Army and Brazilian

Winter 2025 armored training exchange at NTC or CA-Sul would offer significant benefits that would foster tactical interopera bility, promote cross-training opportu nities, and enhance bilateral defense and security cooperation objectives. Infrastructure constraints, logistical considerations, and language barriers must be carefully managed to ensure a successful and productive training ro tation. For example, communication barriers can be overcome with coordi nated and deliberate integration with U.S. Army Foreign Area Officers (FAOs), MPEPs, and 1SFAB advisors. Despite these challenges, such an exchange would enhance combined arms ma neuver capabilities and interoperabil ity. Conclusion In all iterations of SV/CORE to date, Brazilian Army units have been paired with a unit from a U.S. Army IBCT com pany. As SV/CORE exercises mature, there is a possibility of the introduc tion of Brazilian Army Armor and Cav alry formations to join a U.S. Army SBCT or ABCT in a CTC rotation at the NTC in Fort Irwin, California. Addition ally, the possibility of a U.S. tank pla toon training with a Brazilian armored formation is within the realm of possi bilities. The purpose of SV/CORE is “to enhance interoperability at the tactical level with operational and strategic sig nificance” ensuring integrated deter rence.16 The participation of U.S. and Brazilian armored formations working together at the NTC or CA-SUL is the definition of integrated deterrence that ensures stability in the Western Hemisphere and makes America safer, stronger, and more prosperous. Major Miguel Moyeno is an Armor Of ficer currently serving as a Military Per sonnel Exchange Program (MPEP) In structor at the Brazilian Army Center for Languages (CIdEx), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. His previous assignments in clude Garrison Operations Officer at Fort Hamilton, NY; Advisor Team Lead er with 1st Battalion, 4th SFAB at Fort Carson, CO; and Company Commander with JRTC Operations Group at Fort Johnson, LA, as well as roles at WHIN SEC, Fort Benning, and in Korea with the 72nd Armor Regiment. MAJ Moye no is a graduate of the Brazilian Com mand and General Staff College, WHINSEC Maneuver Captain’s Career Course, and the Infantry Basic Officer Leader’s Course, and has completed Airborne, Air Assault, Ranger, Pathfind er, and Combat Advisor training. He holds a bachelor of science from the U.S. Military Academy, and master’s degrees from Liberty University, Teach ers College (Columbia University), and Columbus State University. MAJ Moy eno’s awards include the Meritorious Service Medal, Expert Infantryman Badge, Basic Army Instructor Badge, Order of St. Maurice, and Noble Patron of Armor. Master Sergeant Jaime Cantu is a 19C Bradley Crewmember currently serving as a Military Personnel Exchange Pro gram (MPEP) Instructor at the Brazil ian Army Armor School (CIBLD), Santa Maria. His operational experience in cludes Platoon Sergeant with 2-13 CAV in South Korea, Senior Scout with 6-1 CAV completing rotations at NTC and JRTC, a Security Forces Assistance Team (SFAT) deployment to Jordan training Jordanian Armed Forces, and a deploy ment to Afghanistan with 3-66 AR con ducting patrols and raids. MSG Cantu also served as a U.S. Army Recruiter and held key staff positions as an As sistant S3 NCOIC and acting First Ser geant in 2-13 CAV. His military educa tion includes the Master Leaders Course, Common Faculty Development Instructor Course, Senior Leaders Course, and multiple other leadership and specialized courses. MSG Cantu is pursuing a bachelor’s degree in orga nizational leadership from the Univer sity of Charleston, West Virginia, and is recognized with two Meritorious Ser vice Medals, two Army Commendation Medals, the Combat Action Badge, and the Bronze Order of St. George, among other awards and badges. Notes 1 CALL; U.S. Army South Exercise SOUTH ERN VANGUARD 22 Integrated Deterrence in the Western Hemisphere; No. 22-716, August 2022 https://api.army.mil/e2/c/ downloads/2023/01/31/513386df/22- 716-southern-vanguard-22-public.pdf 2 Ibid. 3 Association of the United States Army (AUSA); Profile of the U.S. Army 2024 https://www.ausa.org/publications/profile-united-states-army-2024 4 Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA); Security Cooperation Overview and Relationships https://samm.dsca.mil/ chapter/chapter-1#C1.1. 5 Association of the United States Army (AUSA); Profile of the U.S. Army 2022 https://www.ausa.org/sites/default/files/ Profile-of-the-United-States-Army-2022. pdf 6 Ibid. 7 Brazilian Army Armor and Cavalry Capa bilities Brief 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 AUSA; Profile of the U.S. Army 2024 https://www.ausa.org/sites/default/files/ AUSA-Army-Profile-2024.pdf 11 Brazilian Army Armor and Cavalry Force Capabilities Brief, 2023. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Maj. Jessica Rovero, “U.S. Army M1A2 tanks train in Australia alongside partner nations for the first time,” U.S. Army Pa cific, Aug. 1, 2023, https://www.usarpac. army.mil/Our-Story/Our-News/Article-Display/Article/3479360/us-army-m1a2- tanks-train-in-australia-alongside-partner-nations-for-the-first-t/ 18 CALL; U.S. Army South Exercise SOUTHERN VANGUARD 22 Integrated De terrence in the Western Hemisphere; No. 22-716, August 2022 https://api.army.mil/ e2/c/ downloads/2023/01/31/513386df/22- 716-southern-vanguard-22-public.pdf