The Case for a Medium Tank to Be Incorporated into the Joint Force

Spring-Summer 2019 The Case for a Medium Tank to Be Incorporated into the Joint Force by MAJ Jeremy Zollin “It’s the best main battle tank in the world – if you can get it there.” – 1st In fantry Division tank-battalion com mander’s wry remark as he stands watching his fleet of 70-ton M1 Abrams heavy tanks sitting, parked, unable to patrol in his area of operations be cause they are too heavy for the prim itive road nets.1 (Author’s note: The following article is a synopsis of a larger research study into the requirement of the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) to field a medium tank built to operate in future operating environments (OEs) as identified by the Chief of Staff of the Army’s (CSA) Future Studies Group. The full study can be viewed at the Ike Skel ton Combined-Arms Research Library Website under the 2018 masters of mil itary arts and science (MMAS) collec tion. The supporting research from the case studies that determined the re quirements is omitted for brevity in this article, which will focus on the study’s conclusions to spark debate into the need for a new medium tank designed for urban and littoral combat.) The Abrams, although highly success ful to date, was built for a different type of warfare and different doctrine, and it has already displayed capability gaps when operating in urban and am phibious environments during the past 15 years. Further, during the 2014 Uni fied Quest exercise, the CSA’s Future Studies Group predicted that in the fu ture, megacities (cities with more than 10 million people) will dominate the OE. Whether because of the strategic importance of the cities’ location or the operational objectives lying within the cities, these megacities will likely become future OEs.2 As these environ ments increase in importance, size and frequency, it’s probable that a new platform will be needed to fill the gap. The M1 Abrams main battle tank (MBT) was developed in the mid-1970s to re place the aging M60 MBT. Tanks have served as the centerpiece platform for the U.S. Army and USMC and are de signed to provide mobility, protection and firepower to a rapidly advancing force that delivers shock and awe to the enemy. As part of the U.S. Army’s “Big 5” weapons platforms, the M1 Abrams was developed to fight a defensive battle in Western Europe against overwhelming numbers of So viet and Warsaw Pact T-72 tanks. Using AirLand Battle doctrine, the Ar my’s first commander of Training and Doctrine Command, GEN William E. DePuy, believed the key to success against a Soviet invasion was a decisive early victory.3 Field Manual (FM) 100- 5, Operations (dated 1976), empha sized this concept, stating, “The U.S. Army must, above all else, prepare to win the first battle of the next war.”4 The “Big 5” was designed to provide that initial victory, while the Air Force, Artillery Branch and Special Forces pre vented the Soviets from bringing their reserves forward and overwhelming the weakened defenders.5 Army’s Abrams experience During the development of the AirLand Battle doctrine, the U.S. Army had two tanks: the M60 MBT and the M551 Sheridan Light Airborne Tank. The ag ing M60 MBT, which was falling behind the Soviet MBTs, did not have the re quired protection to survive the 125mm T-72 fires and anti-tank Figure 1. M1A1 Abrams MBTs from 3rd Armored Division move out on a mission during Operation Desert Storm. An M2/ M3 Bradley can be seen in background. (Photo by PHC D.W. Holmes II, U.S. Navy)

Spring-Summer 2019 weapons being developed.6 With the massive Soviet threat and AirLand Bat tle doctrine in mind, the XM1 Abrams was built to survive Soviet tank fires and be able to continue engaging the Soviet tanks. These requirements led to a U.S. tank design that is heavily ar mored to the front, very quiet to ma neuver but with extended range, and able to engage enemy tanks accurately with hypervelocity rounds over long distances.7 Over time, the M60 MBTs were retired from service in both the U.S. Army and the USMC. The U.S. Army continued to maintain the M551 Sheridan Light Air borne Tank until 1996, when it was scheduled to be replaced by the M8 Buford Armored Gun System (AGS). However, in 1996, both the M551 was retired from service and the M8 Buford AGS procurement was cancelled, mak ing the M1 Abrams the only U.S. tank.8 When operating in open fields and with an abundance of fuel and parts, the Abrams has dominated in maneu ver warfare. The first and second Gulf Wars have demonstrated how effec tively the M1 Abrams can destroy op posing mechanized and armored forc es. During the initial invasion in Opera tion Iraqi Freedom (OIF), 3rd Infantry Division maneuvered through the des ert to Baghdad, securing critical lines of communication while continuing north. The 3rd Infantry Division Soldiers isolated cities until infantry and USMC units could replace them.9 Once the Iraqi army surrendered, the M1 Abrams entered a new phase: urban and counter-insurgency warfare. From the inception of the armored force in the 1940s, U.S. Army doctrine stressed that “[a]rmored units avoid defended towns and cities.”10 FM 100- 5, Operations, published in 1993, con tinued to list urban areas under obsta cles that “[c]ommanders plan to nego tiate or avoid.”11 Following the invasion of Iraq in OIF, commanders could no longer avoid urban areas. During this phase, the M1 Abrams performed ad equately and adeptly in urban environ ments while conducting counterinsur gency operations with periods of high-intensity fighting during the battles of Najaf, Sadr City and Fallujah. However, these operations identified several inherent problems with the M1 Abrams’ open-European-battlefield de sign. The enemy had the ability to choose when and how they would at tack, favoring improvised explosive de vices (IED), rocket-propelled grenades (RPG) and deep-buried bombs. This al lowed them to attack the M1 Abrams against its weaker top, rear and under belly. For example, on Oct. 29, 2003, the author witnessed the first U.S. tank crewman killed by hostile fire while the crewman was inside the protected crew compartment of an M1A2 Abrams MBT. The insurgents buried 500 pounds of C-4 explosive in a dirt road, detonating it when the tank from Com pany A, 3rd Battalion, 67th Armor Regi ment, rolled over the bomb. This was the first use of a large deep-buried bomb to destroy an M1 Abrams. Another example of an inherent prob lem with the M1 Abrams’ open-Euro pean-battlefield design comes from Christmas Eve 2005, when an M1 Abrams from 1st Battalion, 64th Armor Regiment, traveling along Route Brew ers in East Baghdad, was struck by an IED. The explosively formed penetrator was close enough to travel under the heavily armored Chobham tank skirts and cut a fuel line, burning the tank to the ground. Combined with the ability of the ene my to circumvent the Abrams’ protec tion, the size and weight of the tank it self created new difficulties. The width, height and length of the gun tube pre vented the Abrams from operating in many of the urban areas in Iraq. Nar row alleys and roads, crowded with parked vehicles, low-hanging power lines and the abundant deadspace (area near the tank that the crew can not observe) around the M1 Abrams prevented it from operating effectively off the major roads inside cities. When operating on smaller roads, the M1 Abrams’ weight and ground pressure easily damaged the substructure and road networks of the local cities and towns, creating animosity toward the United States. During several deploy ments, units received complaints from locals about the damage the tanks had caused. These limitations, combined with its massive fuel requirement, led to the M1 Abrams being used primarily in static overwatch positions along main supply routes or from the outskirts of urban areas, where it could provide observation. During the limited ma neuvers through the tighter neighbor hoods, the tank commander was forced to stand well out of the turret to observe the deadspace near the tank and guide it effectively. This ex posed the commander to enemy smallarms fire and IEDs. USMC’s Abrams experience The USMC also outfits its three tank battalions with the M1 Abrams MBT. The many islands and large waterways of the littoral environment have led to the USMC’s primacy when conducting land operations in the Pacific (Korea being the anomaly). Because of the great distances and the lack of inter mediate staging bases, the USMC has maintained most of its forces afloat in expeditionary units capable of con ducting amphibious assaults and in prepositioned sites. Their forward-po sitioned stocks and floating expedition ary units often include companies of M1 Abrams. Bringing the M1 Abrams ashore in con tested or non-established ports re quires deliberate and time-consuming operations. Because of the size, weight and large logistical tail of the M1 Abrams, the USMC amphibious-assault commanders have to make special con siderations with regard to employing the M1 Abrams. The Landing Craft Air Cushioned (LCAC) can only carry one tank and cannot be pre-boated, while the Landing Craft Utility (LCU) can only carry two tanks if the seas and beach are suitable for the landing and the LCU is not overly worn from age. Dur ing the Ssang Yong 13 exercise in the Republic of Korea, the USMC had to build a Trident Pier system to use cranes to offload eight M1 Abrams. Be cause of the limited number of LCACs, only two M1 Abrams could be brought ashore during the amphibious as sault.12 Due to these limitations, Ma rine commanders often will choose to forego the M1 Abrams in favor of more amphibious-assault vehicles or Light Armored Vehicle 25s,13 greatly limiting the combat power ashore during the most critical portion of an amphibious assault. With a probable increase in

Spring-Summer 2019 amphibious operations as the impor tance of the littoral regions increases, is the M1 Abrams the appropriate plat form for the USMC? Future warfare Each year, the U.S. Army Capabilities Integration Center conducts analysis on what warfare will consist of in the future as part of the CSA’s Title 10 Fu ture Study Plan. This analysis is used to guide the formation of U.S. doctrinal and procurement planning. As mentioned, during Unified Quest 2014, the Army predicted that in the future, megacities will dominate the OE. Currently 24 megacities exist, with half a dozen metro areas of 100 million already existing in the Asia-Pacific re gion. These massive urban areas will account for more than 60 percent of the world’s population and 70 percent of gross domestic product by 2030.14 Unlike the relatively flat and simple cit ies of Iraq, these urban areas will in clude many high rises, suburban areas, tunnels, subways and underground complexes, as well as mass-transporta tion systems and complex terrain. As these megacities grow in impor tance, the Army and USMC must con sider if its current combat platforms, and specifically the M1 Abrams, are suitable to conduct operations within the new OE, or if a new medium tank – smaller, lighter and more versatile – is required. Design considerations must include the characteristics of the future battlefield environments that will impact the operation and employ ment of tanks in relation to mobility, firepower and protection. To facilitate the conversation, the au thor conducted a research study ana lyzing historical cases of tanks and spe cifically the M1 Abrams in urban and amphibious operations, and then con trasted this with the anticipated future environments. This comparison was used to determine the M1 Abrams’ suitability and to identify gaps in its ca pabilities. Case studies, research results The MMAS thesis analyzed the perfor mance of MBTs in multiple battles and compared their primary functions of mobility, firepower and protection to determine strengths and weaknesses of tanks in general in urban battles. These strengths and weaknesses were then compared to the M1 in recent ur ban battles and finally compared to the anticipated future OE to determine if the M1 is suitable for projected battles of the next decades. Case Study 1. The first case study was the Battle of Hue. This battle highlight ed the capabilities of a heavy tank op erating in an urban environment against a determined and effective en emy force. In Hue, the North Vietnam ese Army attacked and fought for 33 days against the USMC equipped with the M48 in the city of Hue. The Ma rines used the tanks’ protection and mobility to bring precision low-angle firepower forward to engage enemy strongpoints. The size and weight of the tank limited its use. This case study relied on historical texts and scholarly sources. Case Study 2. The second case study examined the Israeli experiences in the Second Lebanon War and during Oper ation Cast Lead. This case study repre sented a recent offense by similarly equipped heavy armored units into an urban environment against a deter mined enemy. The evolution of Israeli doctrine between the two battles high lighted the need for all-around protec tion, mobility provided by tracked ve hicles and the need for precision direct fire provided by a tank. This case study also relied on scholarly publications. Case Study 3. The third case was a set of battles during OIF and provided the comparison of the strengths and weak ness of the M1 in urban battles. Al though this operation encompassed 10 years and half a dozen independent battles across different cities, the gen eral characteristics of each city in Iraq were very similar and the operations were conducted by similarly equipped U.S. forces. The study examined sever al battles within OIF for commonalities across the battles. It used both schol arly publications and interviews with Figure 2. A Marine M1A1 offloads from an LCAC.

Spring-Summer 2019 U.S. Army and USMC armor officers re garding their observations about the performance and limitations of the M1 Abrams during these battles. These battles highlighted the M1’s domi nance with regard to protection, preci sion firepower and mobility; however, it also highlighted the M1’s weakness es with regard to all-around protec tion, size, weight and limited angles of fire from the main weapon systems. Case Study 4. The fourth case for anal ysis was recent USMC amphibious-assault exercises. These exercises high lighted the performance of the M1 Abrams as the primary tank of the USMC with superior firepower, mobil ity and protection once it was ashore. The case also highlighted the limita tions of the M1 as an amphibious plat form with major considerations regard ing the transportation, resupply and landing of the tanks before they can be employed. The study used both USMC after-action reviews and interviews with USMC amphibious-warfare ex perts experienced with the deployment of the M1 Abrams during amphibious assaults. Finally, the study analyzed the future OE for both the USMC and the U.S. Army. The case study examined mega cities and their likely impacts on ma neuver forces, specifically tanks, oper ating within them. The case examined the anticipated growth of megacities, the characteristics of megacities and how megacities will influence doctrine and operations. The study evaluated the requirements these impacts will generate for the force. The results are captured and consolidated in Table 1. They highlight the need for smaller, lighter and evenly-armored tracked platforms that still provide precision, direct, high-explosive firepower. Conclusions The first four case studies identified ex amples of urban and amphibious envi ronments where MBTs have operated in similar environments. Each case identified strengths and weaknesses for tanks in the historical environments as listed in Table 2. These Figure 3. A Merkava (“Chariot”) Mark IVm tank from the Israel Defense Forces’ 401st Brigade patrols the Gaza border. The tank has the Trophy protection system installed. (Photo by Natan Flayer) Table 1. Requirements for the future OE.

Spring-Summer 2019 environments shared many of the characteristics of the future OEs. The scale and density challenges of the fu ture environments did not exist in the historical cases and mitigated several of the weaknesses demonstrated by the tanks in those cases. With regard to mobility, tanks in the previous OEs demonstrated strengths in the ability to traverse rubble and de bris, push through buildings and oper ate along major thoroughfares. How ever, these tanks each had limitations with regard to size and weight. They were unable to cross bridges and canal causeways or to traverse many of the smaller roadways. The USMC amphibi ous operations were also limited in the ability to transport tanks to the shore in a rapid and timely manner because of the weight of the tank and the ca pacity of the landing craft. The protection aspects of the tanks proved far better overall, with tanks surviving many engagements from IEDs and RPGs. The weakness of all-around armor was identified in each case and had been exploited by the enemy. With regard to firepower, the ability of each tank to traverse the turret laterally and to elevate or depress the main gun was identified as a weakness. Otherwise, the tanks provided a powerful, avail able main gun capable of creating large holes in walls, engaging strongpoints and identifying enemy personnel and caches. The MMAS thesis determined that there were several critical characteris tics within the future battlefield envi ronments that would impact tanks’ employment. The first set of character istics, with regard to the mobility of the tanks, affect the size and weight of the tank. The inclusion of “old city” neighborhoods of megacities – urban canyons created by multi-story build ings and many small cross streets and alleyways – all limit the mobility of larger vehicles. The weight-bearing characteristics of roadways, canals, bridges and overpasses will also re duce the ability of large armored vehi cles to operate freely. Concerning protection, the interlaced surface, subsurface and super-surface will create many avenues for threat forces to surround and engage tanks from all directions. This will increase the likelihood of tanks being engaged from the top, rear and underbelly. Finally, with regard to firepower, those same elevation changes, old-city walls, reinforced structures and the materi als creating blinding surfaces will all af fect the ability of weapon systems to effectively engage targets and have ef fects. The dense civilian populations will also restrict freedom of fires and force tanks to contend with traffic and a threat force capable of blending into the population. Because of these characteristics, a tank operating in these future OEs will have several design requirements related to mobility, protection and firepower:

• The mobility requirements include having a tracked vehicle able to traverse rubble and debris, with enough power to push through walls and to tow other tanks.

• The tank needs to be narrow and light enough to traffic a sufficient portion of the city.

• The tank must maintain the ability to breach obstacles and maintain enough speed to aid in assaulting objectives.

• The vehicle’s protection requires an all-around armor package able to withstand many engagements from anti-tank weapon systems and IEDs.

• Firepower requirements include a main gun capable of super-elevation and -depression, with ammunition able to penetrate reinforced structures and create holes large enough for infantry to attack through.

• The barrel must be short enough to enable lateral traversing to engage targets in narrow streets.

• The requirements remain for multiple machineguns able to focus on more than one avenue of approach and advanced optical systems with thermal and night-vision capabilities. Future tank needs The MBTs – and specifically, the M1 Abrams – demonstrated significant ca pability gaps compared to the future OE (see Table 2). Each MBT demon strated weaknesses in mobility regard ing the width and weight of the respec tive tanks. The ability to land combat formations from USMC Amphibious Readiness Group vessels and to tra verse narrow roadways or cross bridg es, causeways and road surfaces will significantly impact the MBT’s mobility in future OEs. The other MBTs and M1 Table 2. Comparison of the M1 Abrams to previous and future OEs.

Spring-Summer 2019 Abrams also demonstrated a protec tion capability gap regarding all-around armor and the ability to survive multi ple anti-tank weapon engagements from all angles. Finally, there were fire power capability gaps in the ability to traverse the turret in narrow roadways, or to elevate and depress the gun tube sufficiently to engage targets in the rel atively flat urban environments of the historical case studies. This gap in creases significantly in the future megacity environment. Based on the research, the study de termined that the U.S. Army and USMC require a medium tank to operate in the anticipated future OEs of the glob al littorals and megacities. The M1 Abrams is not suited for projected mis sion requirements. The M1 Abrams proved itself a capable tank when op erating in large cities with relatively flat terrain and little to no sub-terrain. Our experience when we encountered the cities of Iraq were relatively wide roads and open spaces with few tall buildings. Even in these environments, the tank’s weakness became apparent for elements conducting high-intensity operations in Sadr City, Fallujah, Rama di and Najaf. Officers interviewed for this study identified several critical weaknesses that a more determined enemy could have exploited. These weaknesses are the same weaknesses that the megac ity environment would naturally exac erbate. Because the M1 is not well suited to the task, if the Future Studies Group firmly believes that the future OE will include megacities, a new tank developed for those environments should be developed. The tank should make use of new tech nology to increase protection while re ducing the weight of the tank to be able to traverse a sufficient portion of megacity roadways and bridges. The exact weight requirements would need further study of potential future mega city battlefields to determine maxi mum weight limits. Although there is an all-around threat, most threat at tacks still originate from the frontal arc, especially when the tank is moving forward to engage enemy strong points. The Israeli Merkava tank demonstrated increased crew survivability with the crew located in the hull behind the en gine. This design method should be considered. Regardless of the engine placement, the armor should be mod ified for even distribution from top, bottom, rear and frontal protection of the tank. The main gun should be capable of su per-elevation and -depression. This could be accomplished by removing the turret and suspending the weapon system above the hull with small mag azine and ammo located in the hull. The main gun should be short-barreled to maximize lateral movements. To fa cilitate operations in non-urban ter rain, an interchangeable longer barrel could be included. The tank requires a coaxial mounted machinegun as well as a large-caliber machinegun that can be operated by the tank’s commander. The tank requires tracks, but these should be narrow enough to traverse a sufficient portion of future megacity-environment roadways. The exact width and portion of a city the tank should be capable of traversing re quires further analysis of possible fu ture megacity OEs. The tank must maintain enough speed to enable rap id maneuver and reduce enemy target ing of the tank with anti-tank weapon systems. Ideally, an engine with a fuel economy similar to the M2 Bradley would greatly benefit the ability of both the U.S. Army and USMC to sus tain operations and reduce refuel re quirements and logistical tails. The requirement for open-field battle and long-distance armored combat by the U.S. Army will not be alleviated by the increase in megacities. Based on the current employment of forces in predominantly Middle Eastern coun tries, Europe and Korea, the U.S. Army should designate one division as a me dium urban division, fielded with the new medium tank. This division could test and develop megacity doctrine with platforms designed specifically for the urban megacity fight. Should the expectation for future operations ex pand in the number of megacity oper ations, further divisions could be con verted. However, the U.S. Army needs to retain the M1 Abrams MBT or a sim ilar heavy tank for large- scale combat outside of cities. New medium tank The secondary recommendation of the MMAS thesis is the adoption of the new medium tank by the joint force, specifically the USMC. The USMC would benefit from the lighter, smaller tank platform in the conduct of am phibious operations. With an inter changeable barrel, the USMC version of the tank would be capable of fight ing in open terrain where targets may exceed the short distances of urban terrain. These smaller tanks would also increase the landing-craft capabilities to land tanks in pairs or platoons, in creasing the ability to land combat for mations and rapidly deploy forces from the ship to the objective. The greater fuel efficiency would enable the land ing force to sustain operations for a longer period before resupplying. The fielding of a medium tank to the USMC would lower the per-cost unit of each tank, improving development cost. In addition to the USMC, the Army’s airborne and light brigades would ben efit from having a medium tank to sup port operations. Following the remov al of the M551 Sheridan from the light brigades and the cancellation of the AGS, the light brigades were left with out mobile, protected firepower to augment their formations. The U.S. Army is already working to develop a mobile, protected firepower platform for this role in the airborne brigades. The medium tank could be fielded to these brigades instead, further improv ing the development cost and per-unit cost of the medium tank and reducing the number of systems required to be maintained by the U.S. Army. Research and an in-depth analysis of potential future megacity battlefields would help determine the exact re quirements required for a medium tank. The weight, size and speed re quirements identified in this study are undefined. Analysis of bridge and road way weight capabilities, roadway widths and tunnel sizes will guide de velopment of specific requirements for tank development. In conclusion, this research study de termined the U.S. Army and USMC re quire a medium tank to support oper ations in the future OE. Also, the joint force would benefit from the adoption of a medium tank to augment the

Spring-Summer 2019 USMC and U.S. Army airborne and light-infantry brigades. The exact spec ifications of this tank require further research into possible future megacity OEs. MAJ Jeremy Zollin is the senior test of ficer for Dismounted Division, Maneu ver Test Directorate, U.S. Army Opera tional Test Command, Fort Hood, TX. His other assignments include battal ion executive officer, 1st Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Armored Bri gade Combat Team (ABCT), 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, KS (Forward Eu rope); battalion operations officer, 2nd Battalion, 70th Armor Regiment, 2nd ABCT, 1st Infantry Division; brigade S-4, 2nd ABCT, 1st Infantry Division (Forward Kuwait); maneuver/rotational planner, Joint Readiness Training Center, Fort Polk, LA; commander, Company D, 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cav alry Division (Forward Iraq). MAJ Zol lin’s military schools include the Joint Planner Course, Command and Gener al Staff College, Defense Language In stitute (Mandarin), Cavalry Leader’s Course, Maneuver Captain’s Career Course, Scout Platoon Leader’s Course, Armor Officer Basic Course and Ranger and Airborne schools. He has a MMAS degree in joint planning from the Com mand and General Staff College, a master’s of science degree in business administration from West Texas A&M University and a bachelor’s of science degree in international politics from the U.S. Military Academy. MAJ Zollin’s awards and decorations include the Bronze Star Medal (three oak-leaf clus ters), Meritorious Service Medal two oak-leaf clusters) and the Combat Ac tion Badge. MAJ Zollin deployed six times with ABCTs (positions from pla toon leader to battalion executive offi cer), and he has four deployments to Iraq between 2003 and 2011. He also participated in Operation Atlantic Re solve and served in Kuwait. Notes 1 Mike Sparks, “Heavy tanks, helicopter fighter-bombers: an Army in search for battlefield doctrine?” Combat Reform, January 2001, www.combatfreform.org/ heavytankshelicopters.htm. 2 Megacities Concept Team, “Unified Quest 2014: Megacities and the United States Army: Preparing for a Complex and Uncertain Future,” CSA’s Strategic Studies Group, Arlington, VA, June 2014. 3 “Airland Battle,” Wikipedia entry, last modified Oct. 31, 2014, http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirLand_Battle. 4 Department of the Army, FM 100-5, Op erations, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, July 1976. 5 Douglas W. Skinner, “Airland Battle Doc trine,” Center for Naval Analyses, Septem ber 1988. 6 Robert Sunell, Camp Colt to Desert Storm: The History of U.S. Armored Forc es, Lexington, KY: University Press of Ken tucky, 1999. 7 Kendall D. Gott, Breaking the Mold: Tanks in the Cities, Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2006. 8 CPT Josh Suthoff, “Strike Now: Why the Armored Gun System Must Be Purchased in This Fiscal Climate,” ARMOR, March-June 2014. 9 Gregory Fontenot, E.J. Degen and David Tohn, On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom, 1st Edition, Vol. 1, Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2004. 10 FM 17-10, Armored Force Field Manu al, Tactics and Techniques, Washington DC: Government Printing Office, March 1942. 11 FM 100-5, June 1993 edition. 2 Marine Corps Center for Lessons Learned, 3rd Marine Division’s after-action review of Exercise Ssang Yong 2013, June 10, 2013. 3 Andrew Dietz, comments made during classroom instruction on the USMC, Com mand and General Staff College, Depart ment of Logistics and Resource Opera tions, Sept. 12, 2014. 4 Megacities Concept Team, CSA Strategic Studies Group. Acronym Quick-Scan ABCT – armored brigade combat team AGS – Armored Gun System CSA – Chief of Staff of the Army FM – field manual IED – improvised explosive device LCAC – Landing Craft Air-Cushioned LCU – Landing Craft Utility MBT – main battle tank MMAS – masters (degree) of military arts and science OE – operating environment OIF – Operation Iraq Freedom RPG – rocket-propelled grenade USMC – U.S.Marine Corps